Reading: Normal and Low Vision | Gordon Legge & the Minnesota Laboratory for Low-Vision Research

1. Recent Articles on Reading (2003 and after)

Atilgan, N., Xiong, Y.-Z. & Legge, G.E. (2020). Reconciling print-size and display-size constraints on reading. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. (article) (PDF)

Xiong, Y.-Z., Kwon, M., Bittner, A.K., Virgili, G., Giacomelli, G. & Legge, G.E. (2020). Relationship between acuity and contrast sensitivity: Differences due to eye disease. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 61(6), 40. (article) (PDF)

Wu, Y.-H., Granquist, C., Gage, R., Crossland, M.D. & Legge, G.E. (2020). Online survey of digital reading by adults with low vision. Optometry & Vision Science, 97(4), 249-256. (article) (PDF)

Xiong, Y.-Z., Qiao, C. & Legge, G.E. (2019). Reading with letter transpositions in central and peripheral vision. Journal of Vision, 19(3), 17. (article) (PDF)

Mansfield, J.S., Atilgan, N., Lewis, A. & Legge, G.E. (2019). Extending the MNREAD sentence corpus: Computer-generated sentences for measuring visual performance in reading. Vision Research, 158, 11-18. (article) (PDF)

Xiong, Y.-Z., Calabrese, A., Cheong, A.M.Y. & Legge, G.E. (2018). Reading acuity as a predictor of low-vision reading performance. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 59, 4798-4803. (article) (PDF)

Granquist, C., Wu, Y.-H., Gage, R., Crossland, M.D. & Legge, G.E. (2018). How people with low vision achieve magnification in digital reading. Optometry and Vision Science, 95(9), 711-719. (article) (PMC) (PDF)

Xiong, Y.-Z., Lorsung, E.A., Mansfield, J.S., Bigelow, C. & Legge, G.E. (2018). Fonts designed for macular degeneration: Impact on reading. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 59, 4182-4189. (article) (PDF)

He, Y., Baek, S., & Legge, G.E. (2018). Korean reading speed: Effects of print size and retinal eccentricity. Vision Research, 150, 8-14. (article) (PDF)

Gupta, A., Mesik, J. Engel, S.A., Smith, R., Schatza, M., Calabrèse, A., van Kuijk, F.J., Erdman, A.G. & Legge, G.E. (2018). Beneficial effects of spatial remapping for reading with simulated central field loss. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 59, 1105-1112. (article) (PDF)

Calabrèse, A., To, L., He, Y., Berkholtz, E., Rafian, P. & Legge, G.E. (2018). Comparing performance on the MNREAD iPad app with the MNREAD acuity chart. Journal of Vision, 18(1): 8. (article) (PDF)

He, Y., Kwon, M. & Legge, G.E. (2018). Common constraints limit Korean and English character recognition in peripheral vision. Journal of Vision, 18(1): 5. (article) (PDF)

Wang, H. & Legge, G.E. (2018). Comparing the minimum spatial-frequency content for recognizing Chinese and alphabet characters. Journal of Vision, 18(1): 1. (article) (PDF)

Yu, D., Legge, G.E., Wagoner, G. & Chung, S.T.L. (2018). Training peripheral vision to read: boosting the speed of letter processing. Vision Research, 152, 51-60. (article) (PDF)

He, Y. & Legge, G.E. (2017). Linking crowding, visual span, and reading. Journal of Vision, 17(11): 11. (article) (PDF)

Calabrèse, A., Liu, T. & Legge, G.E. (2017). Does vertical reading help people with macular degeneration: an exploratory study. PLoS ONE, 12(1): e0170743. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E. (2016). Reading digital with low vision. Visible Language, 50, 102-125. Special Issue – Reflecting on 50 Years of Typography. (article) (PDF)

Calabrese, A., Cheong, A.M.Y., Cheung, S.-H., He, Y., Kwon, M. Mansfield, J.S., Subramanian, A., Yu, D. & Legge, G.E. (2016). Baseline MNREAD measures of normally sighted subjects from childhood to old age. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 57, 3836-43. (article) (PDF)

Calabrese, A., Owsley, C., McGwin, G. & Legge, G.E. (2016). Development of a reading accessibility Index using the MNREAD acuity chart. JAMA Ophthalmology, 134(4), 398-405. (article) (PDF)

Yu, D., Jiang, Y., Legge, G.E. & He, S. (2015). Locating the cortical bottleneck for slow reading in peripheral vision. Journal of Vision, 15(11), 3. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E. (2014). Prentice Medal Lecture: Visual accessibility: A challenge for low-vision research. Optometry & Vision Science, 91, 696-706. (article) (PDF)

Yu, D., Legge, G.E., Wagoner, G. & Chung, S.T.L. (2014). Sensory factors limiting horizontal and vertical visual span for letter recognition. Journal of Vision, 14(6): 3. (article) (PDF)

Subramanian, A., Legge, G.E., Wagoner, G.H. & Yu D. (2014). Learning to read vertical text in peripheral vision. Optometry and Vision Science, 91(9), 1097-1105. (article) (PMC) (PDF)

Wang, H., He, X., & Legge, G.E. (2014). Effect of pattern complexity on the visual span for Chinese and alphabet characters. Journal of Vision, 14(8): 6, 1-17. (article) (PDF)

He, Y., Legge, G.E. & Yu, D. (2013). Sensory and cognitive influences on the training-related improvement of reading speed in peripheral vision. Journal of Vision, 13(7): 14. (article) (PDF)

Pelli, D.G., Chung, S.T.L., & Legge, G.E. (2012). Theories of reading should predict reading speed. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35(5), 297–298. (article) (PMC) (PDF)

Kwon, M. & Legge, G.E. (2012). Spatial-frequency requirements for reading revisited. Vision Research, 62, 139-147. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E. & Bigelow, C.A. (2011). Does size matter for reading? A review of findings from vision science and typography. Journal of Vision, 11(5): 8. (article) (PDF)

Lee, H.-W., Kwon, M., Legge, G.E., & Gefroh, J.G. (2010). Training improves reading speed in peripheral vision: Is it due to attention? Journal of Vision, 10(6): 18. (article) (PDF)

Yu, D., Cheung, S.-H., Legge, G.E. & Chung, S.T.L. (2010). Reading speed in the peripheral vision of older adults: Does it benefit from perceptual learning? Vision Research, 50(9), 860-869. (article) (PDF)

Yu, D., Legge, G.E., Park, H. Gage, E., & Chung, S.T.L. (2010). Development of a training protocol to improve reading performance in peripheral vision. Vision Research, 50(1), 36-45. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Tjan, B.S., Chung, S.T.L. & Bigelow C. (2010). Commentary on Watt and Dakin’s “The utility of image descriptions in the initial stages of vision”: Do image descriptions underlie word recognition in reading? British Journal of Psychology, 101, 33-39. (article) (PMC) (PDF)

Yu, D., Park, H., Gerold, D. & Legge, G.E. (2010). Comparing reading speed for horizontal and vertical English text. Journal of Vision, 10(2): 21. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Cheung, S.-H., Chung, S.T.L., Lee, H.-W., Gefroh, J.G., & Kwon, M.Y. (2008). Training peripheral vision to read. In J.J. Rieser, D.H. Ashmead, F. F. Ebner, & A.L. Corn (Eds.), Blindness and brain plasticity in navigation and object perception (pp. 209-226). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Taylor and Francis Group. (Book)

Cheung, S.-H., Kallie, C.S., Legge, G.E. & Cheong, A.M.Y. (2008). Nonlinear mixed-effects modeling of MNREAD data. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 49, 828-835. (article) (PDF)

Cheong, A.M.Y., Legge, G.E., Lawrence, M., Cheung, S-H., & Ruff, M. (2008). Relationship between visual span and reading performance in age-related macular degeneration. Vision Research, 48(4), 577-588. (article) (PDF)

Crossland, M.D, Legge, G.E. & Dakin, S.C. (2008). Development and validation of an automated sentence generator for the assessment of reading speed: A methodological study. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 4: 14. (article) (PDF)

Cheong., A.M.Y., Legge. G.E., Lawrence, M., Cheung, S-H., & Ruff, M. (2007) Relationship between slow visual processing and reading speed in people with macular degeneration. Vision Research, 47(23), 2943-2955. (article) (PDF)

Kwon, M., Legge, G.E. & Dubbels, B. (2007). Developmental changes in the visual span for reading. Vision Research, 47(22), 2889-2900. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Cheung, S.-H., Yu, D., Chung, S.T.L., Lee, H.-W., & Owens, D. (2007). The case for the visual span as a sensory bottleneck in reading. Journal of Vision, 7(2): 9. (article) (PDF)

Yu, D., Cheung, S.-H., Legge, G.E., Chung, S.T.L. (2007). Effect of letter spacing on visual span and reading speed. Journal of Vision, 7(2): 2. (article) (PDF)

Sass, S.M., Legge, G.E. & Lee, H.-W. (2006). Low-vision reading speed: Influences of linguistic inference and aging. Optometry & Vision Science, 83(3), 166-177. (article) (PMC) (PDF)

Chung, S.T.L., Legge, G.E., & Cheung, S.-H. (2004). Letter recognition and reading speed in peripheral vision benefit from perceptual learning. Vision Research, 44(7), 695-709. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E. & Cheung, S.-H. (2004). Psychophysics of reading: Implications for displaying text. Society for Information Display 2004 International Symposium Digest of Technical Papers, 35(1), 1359-1361. (article) (PDF)

Lee, H.-W., Legge, G.E., & Ortiz, A. (2003). Is word recognition different in central and peripheral vision? Vision Research, 43(26), 2837-2846. (article) (PDF)

2. Psychophysics of Reading: Normal and Low Vision

Legge, G.E., Pelli, D.G., Rubin, G.S., & Schleske, M.M. (1985). Psychophysics of reading. I. Normal vision. Vision Research, 25(2), 239-252. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Rubin, G.S., Pelli, D.G., & Schleske, M.M. (1985). Psychophysics of reading. II. Low vision. Vision Research, 25(2), 253-266. (abstract) (PDF)

Pelli, D.G., Legge, G.E., & Schleske, M.M. (1985). Psychophysics of reading. III. A fiberscope low-vision reading aid. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 26(5), 751-763. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E. & Rubin, G.S. (1986). Psychophysics of reading. IV. Wavelength effects in normal and low vision. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 3(1), 40-51. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Rubin, G.S., & Luebker, A. (1987). Psychophysics of reading. V. The role of contrast in normal vision. Vision Research, 27(7), 1165-1177. (abstract) (PDF)

Rubin, G.S. & Legge, G.E. (1989). Psychophysics of reading. VI. The role of contrast in low vision. Vision Research, 29(1), 79-91. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Ross, J.A., Maxwell, K.T., & Luebker, A. (1989). Psychophysics of reading. VII. Comprehension in normal and low vision. Clinical Vision Sciences, 4(1), 51-60. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Ross, J.A., Luebker, A., & LaMay, J.M. (1989). Psychophysics of reading. VIII. The Minnesota low-vision reading test. Optometry & Vision Science, 66(12), 843-853. (abstract) (PDF)

Parish, D.H. & Legge, G.E. (1989). Psychophysics of reading. IX. The stability of eye position in normal and low vision. [Unpublished Manuscript]. (abstract) (PDF)

Akutsu, H., Legge, G.E., Ross, J.A., & Schuebel, K. (1991). Psychophysics of reading. X. Effects of age related changes in vision. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46(6), 325-331. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Parish, D.H., Luebker, A., & Wurm, L.H. (1990). Psychophysics of reading. XI. Comparing color contrast and luminance contrast. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 7(10), 2002-2010. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Ross, J.A., Isenberg, L.M., & LaMay, J.M. (1992). Psychophysics of reading. XII. Clinical predictors of low-vision reading speed. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 33(3), 677-687. (abstract) (PDF)

Ahn, S.J. & Legge, G.E. (1995). Psychophysics of reading. XIII. Predictors of magnifier-aided reading speed in low vision. Vision Research, 35(13), 1931-1938. (abstract) (PDF)

Beckmann, P.J. & Legge, G.E. (1996). Psychophysics of reading. XIV. The page-navigation problem in using magnifiers. Vision Research, 36(22), 3723-3733. (abstract) (PDF) (article)

Mansfield, J.S., Legge, G.E., & Bane, M.C. (1996). Psychophysics of reading. XV. Font effects in normal and low vision. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 37(8), 1492-1501. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Ahn, S.J., Klitz, T.S. & Luebker, A. (1997). Psychophysics of reading. XVI. The visual span in normal and low vision. Vision Research, 37(14), 1999-2010. (abstract) (PDF)

Harland, S., Legge, G.E., & Luebker, A. (1998). Psychophysics of reading. XVII. Low-vision performance with four types of electronically magnified text. Optometry & Vision Science, 75(3), 183-190. (abstract) (PDF)

Chung, S.T.L., Mansfield, J.S., & Legge, G.E. (1998). Psychophysics of reading. XVIII. The effect of print size on reading speed in normal peripheral vision. Vision Research, 38(19), 2949-2962. (abstract) (PDF) (article)

Bruggeman, H. & Legge, G.E. (2002). Psychophysics of reading. XIX. Hypertext search and retrieval with low vision. Proceedings of the IEEE, 90(1), 94-103. (abstract) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Mansfield, J.S., & Chung, S.T.L. (2001). Psychophysics of reading. XX. Linking letter recognition to reading speed in central and peripheral vision. Vision Research, 41(6), 725-734. (abstract) (PDF) (article)

3. MNREAD Articles

Calabrèse, A., Cheong, A.M.Y., Cheung, S.-H., He, Y., Kwon, M., Mansfield, J.S., Subramanian, A., Yu, D. & Legge, G.E. (2016). Baseline MNREAD measures of normally sighted subjects from childhood to old age. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 57(8), 3836-3843. (article) (PDF)

Calabrèse, A., Owsley, C., McGwin, G. & Legge, G.E. (2016). Development of a reading accessibility Index using the MNREAD acuity chart. JAMA Ophthalmology, 134(4), 398-405. (article) (PDF)

Cheung, S.-H., Kallie, C.S., Legge, G.E. & Cheong, A.M.Y. (2008). Nonlinear mixed-effects modeling of MNREAD data. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 49(2), 828-835. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Madison C., & Mansfield J.S. (1999). Measuring Braille reading speed with the MNREAD test. Visual Impairment Research, 1(3), 131-145. (article) (PDF)

Mansfield, J.S., Legge, G.E., & Bane, M.C. (1996). Psychophysics of reading. XV. Font effects in normal and low vision. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 37(8), 1492-1501. (article) (PDF)

Ahn, S.J., Legge, G.E., & Luebker, A. (1995). Printed cards for measuring low-vision reading speed. Vision Research, 35(13), 1939-1944. (article) (PDF)

Mansfield, J.S., Ahn, S., Legge, G.E., & Luebker, A. (1993). A new reading-acuity chart for normal and low vision. Ophthalmic and Visual Optics/Noninvasive Assessment of the Visual System Technical Digest, 3, 232-235.

Legge, G.E., Ross, J.A., Luebker, A., & LaMay, J.M. (1989). Psychophysics of reading. VIII. The Minnesota low-vision reading test. Optometry and Vision Science, 66(12), 843-853. (article) (PDF)

4. Other Articles on Reading and Vision

Chung, S.T.L., Legge, G.E., Pelli, D.G. & Yu, C. (2019). Visual factors in reading. Vision Research, 161, 60-62. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E. & Chung, S.T.L. (2016). Low vision and plasticity: Implications for rehabilitation. Annual Review of Vision Science, 2, 321-343. (article) (PDF)

Ortiz, A., Chung, S.T.L, Legge, G.E., & Jobling, J.T. (1999). Reading with a head-mounted video magnifier. Optometry & Vision Science, 76(11), 755-763. (article) (PDF)

Ahn, S.J., Legge, G.E., & Luebker, A. (1995). Printed cards for measuring low-vision reading speed. Vision Research, 35(13), 1939-1944. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E. (1993). The role of contrast in reading: Normal and low vision. In R.M. Shapley & D.M.-K. Lam (Eds.), Contrast Sensitivity, Vol. 5 (pp. 269-287). The MIT Press. (article)

Legge, G.E. (1991). Glenn A. Fry Award Lecture 1990: Three perspectives on low-vision reading. Optometry & Vision Science, 68(10), 763-769. (article) (PDF)

Legge G.E., Rubin, G.S., Pelli, D.G., Schleske, M.M., Luebker, A., & Ross, J. (1988). Understanding low vision reading. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 82, 54-59. (article) (PDF)

Legge, G.E., Rubin, G.S., & Schleske, M.M. (1986). Contrast-polarity effects in low-vision reading. In G.C. Woo (Ed.) Low Vision: Principles and Applications, 288-307. Springer-Verlag. (link)

Legge, G.E., Pelli, D.G., & Schleske, M.M. (1981). Some properties of matrix-display reading. In C.C. Jaffe (Ed.) Second International Visual Psychophysics and Medical Imaging Conference (pp. 119-123). IEEE Press.

5. Mr. Chips: An Ideal Observer Model of Reading

Click here to see Mr. Chips in action!

Legge G.E., Hooven, T.A., Klitz, T.S., Mansfield, J.S., & Tjan, B.S. (2002). Mr. Chips 2002: New insights from an ideal-observer model of reading. Vision Research, 42(18), 2219-2234. (article) (PDF)

Klitz, T.S., Legge, G.E., & Tjan, B.S. (2000). Saccade planning in reading with central scotomas: Comparison of human and ideal performance. In A. Kennedy, R. Radach, D. Heller & J. Pynte (Eds.) Reading as a Perceptual Process (pp. 667-682). Elsevier. (article)

Legge G.E., Klitz, T.S. & Tjan, B.S. (1997). Mr. Chips: An ideal-observer model of reading. Psychological Review, 104(3), 524-553. (article) (pdf)

6. Dyslexia

O'Brien, B.A., Mansfield, J.S., & Legge, G.E. (2005). The effect of print size on reading speed in dyslexia. Journal of Research in Reading, 28(3), 332-349. (article) (PDF)

O'Brien, B.A., Mansfield, J.S., & Legge, G.E. (2001). Comment on letter to the Editor: Is dyslexia caused by a visual deficit? Vision Research, 41(23), 3071. (article) (pdf)

O'Brien, B.A., Mansfield, J.S., & Legge, G.E. (2000). The effect of contrast on reading speed in dyslexia. Vision Research, 40(14), 1921-1935. (article) (PDF)

7. Letter Recognition

He, Y., Scholz, J.M., Gage, R., Kallie, C.S., Liu, T. & Legge, G.E. (2015). Comparing the visual spans for faces and letters. Journal of Vision, 15(8): 7. (article) (PDF)

Yu, D., Legge, G.E., Wagoner, G. & Chung, S.T.L. (2014). Sensory factors limiting horizontal and vertical visual span for letter recognition. Journal of Vision, 14(6): 3. (article) (PDF)

Kwon, M. & Legge, G.E. (2013). Higher contrast requirements for recognizing low-pass filtered letters. Journal of Vision, 13(1): 13. (article) (PDF)

Kwon, M. & Legge, G.E. (2011). Spatial-frequency cutoff requirements for pattern recognition in central and peripheral vision. Vision Research, 51(18), 1995-2007. (article) (PDF)

Chung, S.T.L. & Legge, G.E. (2009). Precision of position signals for letters. Vision Research, 49(15), 1948-1960. (article) (PDF)

Beckmann, P.J., & Legge, G.E. (2002). Preneural limitations on letter identification in central and peripheral vision. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 19(12), 2349-2362. (article) (PDF)

Chung S.T.L., Legge, G.E., & Tjan, B.S. (2002). Spatial-frequency characteristics of letter identification in central and peripheral vision. Vision Research, 42(18), 2137-2152. (article) (PDF)

Chung S.T.L., Levi, D.M., Legge, G.E., & Tjan, B.S. (2002). Spatial-frequency properties of letter identification in amblyopia. Vision Research, 42(12), 1571-1581. (article) (PDF)

Chung S.T.L., Levi, D.M., & Legge, G.E. (2001). Spatial-frequency and contrast properties of crowding. Vision Research, 41(14), 1833-1850. (article) (PDF)